Molecular characterization of drug-resistance genes and dynamics of multidrug-resistant Salmonella spp. in waterfowl: a pre- and post-antibiotic ban surveillance in Guangdong, China from 2013 to 2023

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Multidrug-Resistant Organism (MDRO) refers to bacteria that are Resistant to three or more types of antibiotics in clinical use. The global health threat posed by multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial pathogens and their cross-species transmission necessitates rigorous Surveillance. This urgency is amplified in China where antibiotic growth promoters were widely used in animal husbandry until the 2020 implementation of Announcement No. 194 launched by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Announcement 194), banning non-therapeutic antibiotics in feed. This study conducted a decade long investigation on the correlation between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotypes and genetic determinants in 314 Salmonella isolates collected from waterfowl across Guangdong Province, China, utilizing disk diffusion (Kirby-Bauer method) and PCR-based detection of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). The study period covered the antibiotic policy transition in China, specifically encompassing the pre-ban (2013–2019) and post-ban (2020–2023) phases of the nationwide prohibition on growth-promoting antimicrobials in animal feed. Antimicrobial Susceptibility profiles against 16 agents were determined via Kirby-Bauer testing, while PCR amplification targeted 20 ARGs. Statistical analyses evaluated phenotype-genotype correlations using Pearson`s chi-square test. Surveillance revealed escalating resistance rates annually. Highest resistance prevalence was observed against β-lactams and amphenicols (92.25%), whereas amikacin exhibited the lowest resistance rate (9.55%). MDR prevalence reached 87.23%, with the AMP-CAZ-GEN-FFC-TET resistance profile predominating (51.6% of isolates). Genetic analysis identified 3 to 16 ARGs per isolate was harboring, with bla TEM demonstrating the highest detection frequency (90.76%). Significant phenotype-genotype correlations ( p < 0.05) were observed for 13 genes: bla CTX−M , bla TEM , bla OXA , aac C2, aph (3’)-I, aac (3)-IV, aad A1, qnr S, qnr A, clm A, flo R, sul II, tet A. Notably, significant declines in resistance to aminoglycosides (e.g., gentamicin from 71.7 to 3.5%) and florfenicol (from 81.1 to 9.6%) were observed after China’s 2019 antibiotic ban policy ( p < 0.001), underscoring the impact of targeted antimicrobial stewardship in avian husbandry. Analysis of 314 waterfowl Salmonella strains revealed severe multidrug resistance (MDR) and diverse resistance genes (DRGs), with 13 DRGs linked to resistance. China’s antibiotic ban reduced targeted resistance, but MDR persists alarmingly via acquired DRGs and adaptation. Continued enforcement may lower aminoglycoside/phenicol resistance, but β-lactam resistance will likely endure, worsened by transcontinental bla CTX−M spread. Critically, plasmid co-selection threatens to amplify MDR, demanding genomic surveillance. Mitigation requires boosting policy compliance, developing non-antibiotic therapies, mapping mutations, establishing cross-species barriers, and prioritizing One Health interventions to block resistance spread.

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