A gender perspective on language skills and employability: evidence from German-speaking youth in Kosovo

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Purpose While linguistic capital has been widely studied in Western labour markets (Thuesen, 2016; Brophy, 2011), its gendered returns in post-conflict economies – where language skills intersect with fragile institutions and patriarchal norms – remain critically under-researched (Matysiak et al., 2024). Drawing on human capital theory and gendered employment regimes (O’Reilly, 1996), this study examines how German language skills influence employment and mobility among Kosovar youth (N = 707). Our findings reveal a paradox: despite women’s higher representation in education (6.93% vs. men’s 3.96%) and higher emigration intentions (13.15% vs. 9.90%), traditional caregiving roles (Lietzmann and Frodermann, 2021) constrain their labour mobility. Meanwhile, men dominate call centre work (39.75%), where language skills are commodified as “communication factories” (Brophy, 2011) but fail to disrupt gendered income inequalities (Ford et al., 2021). By exposing how linguistic capital is transformed into a gendered resource in post-conflict contexts, we challenge neoliberal assumptions about language as a “neutral” employability tool (Pandey and Pandey, 2014) and advocate for policies that combine skills development with structural reforms (e.g. childcare and anti-discrimination policies). Design/methodology/approach The study aims to investigate employment in Kosovo, with a focus on young people, especially students who speak German well. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect relevant data from different cities in the main centres of Kosovo. The survey aimed to understand employment trends, gender representation, age and in particular the advantage of knowing the German language. The municipalities included in the survey were Ferizaj, Gjakova, Gjilan, Peja, Podujeva, Prishtina, Prizren and Vushtrri. Respondents were recruited through institutional access and voluntary participation via universities, language institutes and youth networks. Given its perceived significance for employment opportunities in both the domestic labour market and migration-related channels, German language proficiency was given special attention in the questionnaire, which collected data on demographic characteristics (age and gender), labour market status, income categories and language skills. The sample approach should be considered non-probabilistic, as the poll focused on young people and relied on voluntary participation. Therefore, it is impossible to completely rule out selection bias, especially if those with higher labour-market goals or proficiency in a foreign language were more likely to participate in the survey. Findings A higher percentage of females (13.15%) than males (9.90%) are considering emigration, while females (11.60%) are also more likely than males (9.48%) to reject it for family reasons. Both genders most commonly cite Kosovo’s stable economic situation as a reason to stay (26.45%). Females constitute 56.25% of respondents, indicating higher participation in the survey. The call centre sector dominates employment (82.18%), with nearly equal gender representation, though females are slightly more numerous. Females are more represented in education (6.93%) than males (3.96%), whereas males have a larger share in other sectors (2.69% vs. 1.98%). Both genders are underrepresented in administration and translation. The ordered logit model examines the relationships among individual characteristics, language skills and income categories among young people in Kosovo. The results indicate that German language proficiency and work experience are strongly associated with higher income levels, while other factors, such as gender, also play a significant role. Variables like age and higher education, however, did not show statistically significant effects in this sample. These findings suggest that specific skills and labour-market experience can influence earning potential, emphasising the importance of language acquisition and practical experience for young people entering the labour market. While the model captures associations rather than causal effects, it provides valuable guidance for policymakers and educators seeking to enhance employability and income outcomes through targeted skill development programs. Research limitations/implications While the survey aimed to capture a representative sample of young people in Kosovo, the study’s findings are based on self-reported data, which may be subject to biases. Additionally, the data collection method focused on German-speaking students, which may limit the representativeness of the results to the broader youth population in Kosovo. Practical implications The findings have important policy implications for improving youth employability in Kosovo. The positive effects of work experience and German-language proficiency suggest the need for greater investment in internships, apprenticeships and early-career training programmes. Stronger cooperation between universities, vocational education providers and employers could facilitate smoother school-to-work transitions. In addition, language programmes aligned with labour-market demand, particularly German-language training for sectors linked to international services, outsourcing and migration-related employment, may represent a valuable employability investment. The results also reveal significant gender differences in income, indicating the need for policies that promote equal career opportunities, reduce occupational segregation and strengthen gender equality in the labour market. While the study identifies associations rather than causal relationships, the evidence highlights the importance of combining employability-enhancing measures with broader efforts to address structural inequalities. These limitations are explicitly acknowledged to ensure a more cautious and realistic interpretation of the policy implications. Originality/value The paper is an original work that we have worked on for nearly two years.

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