A first step in disentangling the roles of human releases and glaciation in shaping red deer mtDNA lineage distribution in peninsular Italy

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Abstract The red deer Cervus elaphus is the largest wild terrestrial vertebrate in Italy. The phylogeographic structure of the species in Europe is the result of a combination of paleogeographic history (climatic refugia during the last glaciation) and translocation mechanisms driven by the need to replenish populations depleted by hunting. Since the species has not been thoroughly studied genetically in the country, we aimed to investigate for the first time the genetic diversity of the Italian red deer population using a nationwide study. Mitochondrial DNA control region (D-loop) sequences from 164 individuals across Italian regions were analysed. We identified high genetic diversity ( N = 38 haplotypes; Hd = 0.861, π = 0.012) and three main European mitochondrial lineages (A, C, and D) aligned with ones described in literature. Lineages A and C were widely distributed and frequently co-occurred within the same regions, particularly in northern and central Italy. In contrast, lineage D, representing the only native lineage still persisting in peninsular Italy, was confirmed in the relic population of the “Bosco della Mesola” Nature Reserve and, notably, detected in a previously unrecognised small group in southern Tuscany, most likely originating from individuals escaped from an enclosure. In general, the genetic patterns observed highlight the dominant role of human-mediated translocations in shaping the current distribution and admixture of red deer lineages in Italy, superimposed on historical signals of glacial refugia. These findings clearly showed the need to incorporate phylogeographic information into management strategies, particularly to preserve native genetic components and avoid further homogenization of distinct lineages. Future studies integrating nuclear genomic data will be essential to clarify the evolutionary and functional significance of these mitochondrial lineages and to inform evidence-based conservation planning.

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