Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Molecular Subtypes; Immune Escape; Limitations of Current Immunotherapy; and the BTLA/HVEM/CD160 Axis as an Emerging Target
Rattachement africain : Afrique du Sud. Niveau de preuve : code pays fourni par la source.
Le résumé fourni par la source
Triple-negative breast cancer is an aggressive and heterogeneous type of invasive breast cancer (BC) in which the cancer cells lack estrogen and progesterone receptors, as well as expression of the human epidermal growth factor 2 protein. This cancer tends to grow and spread faster than other BC subtypes, and is associated with a poor prognosis due to early visceral and neurological recurrences. Multidisciplinary management includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy with targeted immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). The introduction of ICIs has improved outcomes in patients with TNBC, particularly in the metastatic and neoadjuvant settings. Despite these advances, a significant proportion of patients either do not respond to treatment or develop resistance to it. TNBC mortality remains high, underscoring the urgent need to identify novel prognostic and predictive biomarkers to overcome resistance to immunotherapy. Following a brief overview of the clinical features and established biomarkers of TNBC, the current review focuses on immune checkpoint proteins (ICPs) beyond PD-1 and PD-L1, and on the potential use of soluble ICPs rather than the well-established membrane-bound assays. These soluble ICPs are produced through the alternative splicing of messenger (m)RNA or the cleavage/shedding of membrane-bound proteins. This is followed by an overview of current treatment and novel predictive targets in TNBC. Additionally, the involvement of the B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA)/herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM)/CD160 pathway and its role in the pathogenesis of BC and TNBC are reviewed, highlighting the potential use of BTLA and HVEM as biomarkers.
Ce résumé expose les affirmations des auteurs. BNTIC ne l’interprète pas comme une validation indépendante des résultats.
Le contrôle bibliographique ouvert
DOI retrouvé dans Crossref DOI retrouvé ; titre concordant.
- Titre Crossref
- Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Molecular Subtypes; Immune Escape; Limitations of Current Immunotherapy; and the BTLA/HVEM/CD160 Axis as an Emerging Target
- Date Crossref
- 20/05/2026
- Éditeur
- MDPI AG
- Type
- journal-article
Ce recoupement confirme des métadonnées liées au DOI. Il ne confirme ni la méthode ni les conclusions de l’étude, et il ne compte pas comme une seconde source scientifique indépendante.
Où se fait cette recherche
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Milpark Hospital Breast Care Centre of Excellence Johannesburg, Afrique du Sud (code pays fourni par la source)Établissement de santé
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The Medical Oncology Centre of Rosebank Afrique du Sud (code pays fourni par la source)Établissement de santé
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University of Pretoria University of Pretoria, Afrique du Sud (code pays fourni par la source)Université ou école supérieure
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Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Paediatrics and Child Health University of Pretoria, Afrique du Sud (pays nommé en fin d’affiliation)Université ou école supérieure
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The Clinical and Translational Research Unit Johannesburg, Afrique du Sud (pays nommé en fin d’affiliation)Structure de recherche
Breast Care Centre of Excellence — Milpark Hospital (Johannesburg, Afrique du Sud), The Medical Oncology Centre of Rosebank (Afrique du Sud) et University of Pretoria (University of Pretoria, Afrique du Sud), avec 2 autres affiliations. Pays d’affiliation : Afrique du Sud.
Une affiliation ne permet pas de déduire la nationalité d’un auteur.