The Goldilocks dilemma: gendered patterns of social media usage and adolescent life satisfaction across OECD countries

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Abstract Purpose The escalating prevalence of social media usage (SMU) among adolescents coincides with a concerning decline in their life satisfaction globally. While public and scientific discourse vigorously debates the impact of SMU on well-being, existing research offers mixed evidence, often lacking in gender-specific analyses, control for key confounders, and clarity on the functional form of this relationship. This study addresses these gaps by examining the association between SMU time and adolescent life satisfaction in a large international context. Methods Utilizing data from the 2022 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), our analytical sample comprised 159,185 15-year-old students across 24 OECD countries. Life satisfaction was measured on a 0–10 scale, and daily SMU was categorized into five groups (no usage, less than 1 h, 1–3 h, 3–5 h, over 5 h). We employed ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models, controlling for socioeconomic status (SES) and bullying experiences as confounders. Models were estimated separately for boys and girls, and a combined model included gender interaction effects to test for gender differences. We conducted both pooled analyses with country-fixed effects and separate country-specific analyses; all models were weighted to account for complex sampling Results Our pooled analyses reveal an inverted J-shaped relationship between SMU time and life satisfaction. Consistent with the digital Goldilocks hypothesis, adolescents with moderate SMU (1–3 h daily) reported the highest life satisfaction. Importantly, controlling for SES and bullying experiences significantly altered these associations. For boys, the relationship between SMU and life satisfaction became statistically non-significant after confounder control. For girls, however, the inverted J-shaped association persisted, albeit with reduced magnitudes. Girls with no SMU and those with over 5 h of daily usage reported the lowest life satisfaction, with differences of up to 0.32 scale points compared to moderate users. However, country-specific analyses reveal considerable heterogeneity, indicating that this inverted J-shaped pattern is not universal. Consequently, pooled estimates should be interpreted with caution as they mask significant variation across national contexts. Conclusion This study demonstrates a gendered and highly context-dependent association between SMU and adolescent well-being, underscoring the critical importance of controlling for confounders. The most robust finding across diverse national contexts is the negative association between excessive use (over 5 h daily) and life satisfaction, particularly for girls. These findings highlight the necessity of gender-specific considerations in research and interventions aiming to promote adolescent life satisfaction in the digital age, particularly addressing the vulnerability of girls to excessive social media engagement.

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