Interactive effects of cropping systems, nitrogen fertilization, and plant densities on grain filling dynamics, waternitrogen utilization, and economic benefits of winter wheat

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Abstract BACKGROUND Optimizing winter wheat production for sustainability requires a systems approach; however, a comprehensive evaluation of the synergistic effects of cropping systems, nitrogen levels, and planting density is lacking, particularly in terms of how they jointly determine grain development, water‐nitrogen productivity, and profitability. METHOD A 2‐year field experiment evaluated three‐way interactions among two cropping systems (RT and FT cropping system), two nitrogen fertilization (N0 and N200: 0 and 200 kg N ha −1 ), and three planting densities (LD, MD, and HD: 240, 360, and 480 plants m −2 ). Measurements included grain filling dynamics, grain yield (GY), water‐nitrogen utilization, and economic benefit. RESULTS The results showed that RT‐N200‐MD increased GY by 23.5% ( P < 0.01), the time to reach maximum grain filling rate ( t m ) was increased by 17.1%, and the maximum filling rate (GFR max ) was increased by 52.8% compared to FT‐HD. Under the N200‐MD treatment, RT reduced evapotranspiration (ET) by 2.7% but increased water productivity (WP) by 39.2%. HD reduced individual nitrogen uptake (IN u ) by 29.7% but increased population nitrogen accumulation (PN u ) by 41%. The RT‐N200‐MD achieved the highest net income (NI) (8666 CNY ha −1 on average) and benefit–cost ratio (BCR = 1.8:1), while the FT‐HD not only had a lower GY, but also a 6.8% lower NI. CONCLUSION Principal component analysis (PCA) identified the RT‐N200‐MD system as optimal for balancing productivity, resource efficiency (water and nitrogen), and profitability. This approach provides a roadmap for climate‐resilient wheat production in water‐limited regions. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

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