Net energy–cost optimization of STPV–PDRC integrated greenhouses: Balancing energy production and cooling demand under crop-specific DLI constraints

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Optimizing greenhouse envelopes to balance energy efficiency, economic feasibility, and crop lighting requirements is a growing priority for sustainable agriculture. This study developed a multi-objective optimization framework integrating passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) materials and semi-transparent photovoltaics (STPV) to enhance greenhouse performance under varying daily light integral (DLI) constraints. Using coupled energy simulation, daylight analysis, and cost modeling, we evaluated material configurations across various representative DLI thresholds, reflecting different crop requirements. Also, the study presents quantitative assessment of PDRC’s contribution to cooling demand reduction (CDR). An improved equilibrium optimizer (IEO) algorithm was employed to solve the multi-objective problem. Results revealed two distinct energy benefit modes. In passive-dominant regimes (DLI = 10), PDRC coatings accounted for over 97 % of total net energy savings (7649 kWh), enabling the lowest-cost configuration ($6,800). In contrast, active-dominant regimes (DLI = 30) favored STPV deployment, achieving up to 16,290 kWh net energy with higher transparency and electrical efficiency. The results reveal that increased PDRC’s reflectivity from 0.75 to 0.89 resulted in CDR gains of over 640 kWh annually in a representative configuration. This study provides a decision-support framework for designing climate-responsive, energy-efficient greenhouses, emphasizing the critical role of material selection and spatial allocation in achieving sustainability goals.

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