Compiling and analyzing the non-native flora of a megadiverse Neotropical country: a new catalogue for continental Ecuador

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In this study, we provide a comprehensive and updated inventory of the non-native vascular flora of continental Ecuador and analyze its key biogeographic and ecological attributes to inform biological invasion management. We recorded 486 non-native wild plant taxa, 52% of which are naturalized and 48% casual. This inventory was primarily based on secondary data (published literature, scientific reports, and online databases) and enriched through fieldwork and expert consultations. It includes information on taxonomy, life form, lifespan, origin, first year of record, and spatial-temporal distribution. The most represented families were Poaceae (16%), Asteraceae (10%), and Fabaceae (9%). About 60% of the taxa originated from Asia and/or Africa, and 67% are herbs. The earliest introductions date back to the late 18 th century, with an exponential increase beginning in ca. 1915. Only 13% of the taxa have a minimum residence time exceeding 125 years. The Andes accounted for the highest number of taxa (93%, including taxa shared with other regions). Nearly 80% of the non-native taxa have documented uses, most commonly ornamental (42%) and medicinal (38%). Naturalized taxa tended to have longer residence times and more frequently reported uses than casual ones, suggesting these traits may influence naturalization likelihood. Due to limited systematic sampling across the country, particularly outside the Central Andes, some spatial bias may exist. However, the integration of citizen science-derived data, a methodological innovation in our study, proved to be a promising approach for addressing knowledge gaps and improving detection efforts in regions with limited research capacity. Our findings offer a foundation for advancing the management of biological invasions in Ecuador through early detection, rapid response (EDRR), and species prioritization. Finally, we provide a practical, adaptable and replicable framework, based on citizen science and appropriate statistical analyses, for developing national inventories of non-native plant species in data-deficient countries.

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